Home Care Of Our Elderly Citizens Research Proposal

Home Care Of Our Elderly Citizens - Research Proposal Example This umbrella group acts as advocate and activist against the growing weight of political change and governance for our future elder care. Therefore, I have decided to focus this study on the work of UKHCC, to explore three specific areas that are consistently in the media and of concern to both the recipients of care and the deliverer of care services in the UK. My reason for considering this specific area of concern is that we are working in a demographic time bomb of care; as our elderly population grows, and our current elders continue to live beyond higher age trends; we are seeing a growing need to re-address, re-appraise and debate the future of care for ourselves and our elderly. At this stage it is important to discuss the work of UKHCC, to offer understanding to the wider concerns that will be explored by the research being proposed. Its own website describes its focus, which appropriately give reference to its remit: "United Kingdom Home Care Association Ltd (UKHCA) is the professional association of home care providers from the independent, voluntary, not-for-profit and statutory sectors. UKHCA helps organisations that provide social care, which may include nursing services, to people in their own homes, promoting high standards of care and providing representation with national and regional policy-makers and regulators. The Association represents over 1,500 members across the United Kingdom, in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland". www.ukhcc.org.uk (2006) Having now introduced the nature of the potential enquiry we can now move to briefly consider the current debate in literature that has informed the initial interest in this project subject and hypothesis proposed. Literature Review The culture of care has in recent years been debated and discussed within academic circles to the point where this debate now firmly focused on developing a wider theoretical understanding of this concept within the context of delivery. We shall consider briefly the three objectives within the context of current literature and academic debate. This will allow for an informed and guided focus for the potential research study that is being planned. Therefore to offer justice to the wealth of literature we would use the terms "care and home care" to be the context of our ensuring discussion that will offer a key conceptual analysis of the UKHCC, that will be the subjects of this, proposed study. This will afford firstly, an overview of: the legislation that informs delivery of home care provision in the SME's UKHCC represents; Secondly, the training

Features of contract law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Features of contract law - Coursework Example An invitation to treat is an expression of willingness to enter into negotiations that may in future materialize in a contract. Therefore, an invitation to treat is the preliminary step that precedes a contract, and that may or may not turn into a contract. The case of Gibson v Manchester City Council (1979) is illustrative in this regard. As the distinction have now become clear between an offer and invitation to treat – the question whether the advertisement in the newspaper placed by Ahmed amounts to an offer or an invitation to treat. According to the rule contained in Pattridge v Crittenden (1968) an advertisement does not amount to an offer, instead it is an invitation to treat. However, an exception to this rule is contained in Carlill v Carbolic Smokeball that advertisements could, in certain situation, turn into an offer themselves and would just beckon an expression of acceptance to seal the contract. Ahmed’s advertisement in this situation amounts to a unilat eral offer – an offer that only requires acceptance. Evidence of this found in the words ‘acceptance to be confirmed by 22nd July’. ... A conclusion can be drawn from this case that postal rule, an antiquated rule indeed, is only applicable to non-instantaneous forms of communication. Therefore, by analogy it could be held that postal rule will not apply to emails, which is virtually instantaneous will not governed by this rule. Lord Denning further held in this case that acceptance by telex machine took place where it was received, rather than where it was sent. This approach has been confirmed by the House of Lords in The Brimmes (1975) and Brinkibon Ltd v Stahag Stahl (1983). However, these two cases particularly deal with the issue of time of acceptance. In The Brimnes (1975) the issue was whether a withdrawal of the contract was effective when it was received or when it was actually read. Megaw LJ unequivocally held that acceptance is effective and valid when it is expected to be read not when it is actually read. Which in turn means that acceptance would be valid when it is received not when the recipient, thro ugh some fault of his own, failed to read it on time when it was expected to read. Megaw LJ put the judgment in the following words:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"if a notice arrives at the address of the person be notified, at such a time and by such a means of communication that it would in the normal course of business come to the attention of that person on its arrival, that person cannot rely on some failure of himself or his servants to act in a normal businesslike manner in respect of taking cognisance of the communication†. However, in the present situation the acceptance by email has been received at Ahmed’s PC at 5:39pm and that is beyond office hours. It cannot be expected to have been read by Ahmed beyond office hours, but it could be argued that the

Negotiation styles

Negotiation styles Summary: First of all we will know what was the meaning of Negotiation Styles. The negotiation styles are nothing but the way of culture,behavior,skills of th people of different organizations. The negotiation styles are different for different people in different regions the negotiation styles of the people vary from one region to another region. In a international business organization If we go to another country and if we make decisions on our own we may able to give a bad decision in that country because the decision taken by our own was not more reliable than the decision of the people of that country hence the negotiation styles plays a key role in making in a better decision in international business organization. For example let us compare the negotiation styles of two countries in a international business organization. An England clothes manufacturer Peter England has found by researching that the the manufacturing of formals would save them up to 80 % on their cost of production of the same items produced in India.The company decided to send the England negotiators to india to make an agreement to make a best deal with Indians The planning and production manager hired me to give a advice to give a advice to his team to make a best deal with the Indians. I made a PEST and SWOT analysis of Indias macro and micro environments. This analysis shows me that Indian culture has unequal distribution of wealth and power. A personal relationship with Indians would help the team to run negotiation process easily and profitably. 1.1 Clients Description: My client of peter England is a clothes manufacturer who was one of the famous manufacturer in manufacturing the formal clothes. 1.2 Clients Description of Problem: The client has has arised a problem for me tthat â€Å"Our planning and production department had a research and found that if Peter England outsources the production of formal clothes in India to a third partywe can save upto 80% of the current costs of production of the this items. These savings include with the human resources cost and equipment maintenance, insurance of plant production and material, employees, transport etc. A negotiators team to be sent to India to make a discussion and negotiate on the cost of production of formal wears. It was necessary for the team of negotiators to fully understand the Indian culture. since the production margin of peter England in manufacturing the formal wear was been saved. The margin of the production of the product depends on the negotiators and the skills bring up by them. 1.3 What the Client requires of Me: The manager of the planning and production , Mc Farland approached me and asked me to give a suggestion to the team of negotiators to increase the margin of production of the product making a deal with the negotiators of India.The client also asked me to give a detailed information about the cultural differences between the England and India.He also asked me about the detailed description of the negotiation styles in India and how it is carried on the culture of India.So that it would help the team of negotiators in achieving their targets. 1.0 Overview of the situation The client had made a research and had had decided that he had a potential to save up to 80 % in manufacturing the formal clothes of his company Peter England. However the potential of savings in manufacturing the product depends on the team of negotiators who are being sent ot India. It is very important that they understand the Indian culture and market to get the best possible results.They should understand the values, interests, goals, ethical principles and assumptions of the Indian culture.Hence the success of the project depends up on the team of negotiators who must understand the ethics,culture of the Indians an their ability to compete with them for the best. The team of negotiators should have a SWOT analysis to understand the depth. I is also essential for the team to to have a PEST analysis in terms of its political, economic, social and technological issues and conditions in the Indian environment. 2.0 Analysis of the situation According to Moran and Stripp (1991), negotiation takes place when two or more parties have both common and conflicting interests and interact with one another for the purpose of reaching a mutually beneficial agreement. 3.1 PEST analysis: PEST is the acronyms for Political, Economic, Social and Technological. This analytical tool is used by companies to analyse the overall environment or the macro environment of a country and industry before entering into business with them. 1. Political The political environment of India is quite safe. It is the policy of Indian government to facilitate western companies to invest and outsource their operation to India. The negotiators must have an in depth knowledge of Indian laws and regulation regarding foreign investors. 2. Economic Indias economic condition is also good. It is rapidly becoming the hub for investment from western world in south Asia. Indian Rupee has gained strength in the recent times which shows that the market is growing and gaining strength. Also the difference between the US dollar and Indian rupee will enable the client to pay handsomely to the manufacturers in India and yet keep their costs low because 1 US dollar is worth 50 Indian Rupees (approximately). This would help in getting the loyalty of India manufacturers. 3. Social The Indians are highly inspired and influenced by the Americans. The Indian society is quite acceptable of western cultures. There is also a tendency of psychological inferiority on part of the Indians as the Indian sub continent has been ruled by the westerners (British) for a hundred years. The negotiators might like to take advantage of these facts and talk the Indian team into their required results. However, they need to remember that in order to make best use of their visit, the team must get in friendly terms with the Indians. This can only be achieved through socialising outside office hours. These social events might include going to restaurants, bars, clubs etc together. Also, the negotiators should be able to see beyond the role of Indian negotiators and should be able to find out the hidden interests and priorities of their counterparts. 4. Technology Indian is on its way to becoming the main technology hub of the east. High quality and latest technology of all sorts is available in India. Any machinery required for the production plant can be obtained from India or otherwise can be imported from China at low cost. 3.2 SWOT analysis SWOT is an acronym for strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats. Here, SWOT analysis is used to analyse the micro environment in India. 1. Strengths The Indian society is open and friendly towards the westerners. The government has made laws to support foreign investors The negotiators being westerners will have a psychological edge over their Indian counterparts. Beauty Expressed Inc. will be able to pay attractive amounts to the Indian manufacturers and yet keep their cost low due to the difference in the two currencies. Also India is famous for its high quality fabric and low cost productions. 2. Weakness The Indian culture is very different from the US culture and therefore their negotiating styles and ways are much different from each other and work on entirely different variables from each other. For example, in the Indian culture, it is more important to secure a good relationship with the other partyeven if you have to losesomething. Whereas, in the US culture, getting the most out of the deal is more important than keeping the other party happy. 3. Opportunities The client would be able to save huge amounts due to the availability of low cost labour in India. 4. Threats There can be potential delivery issues as deadlines are considered flexible in the Indian culture where as they are considered absolute in the US culture. In addition to this, the US negotiators might not be able to achieve their targets if they fail to understand the variables working behind the attitudes of Indian negotiators. 3.3 Overall Analysis: In order to understand the Indian culture so that the appropriate negotiation style and technique can be adopted, we would use Hofstedes Five Cultural Dimensions. Hofstede calculated the cultural dimensions of many countries which can be accessed on his website in the form of graphs. We will use these to analyse the Indian culture. 1. Power Distance Index Hofstedes Power distance Index measures the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.(www.clearlycultural.com) As the figure 1 shows that PDI for India is 77 against a world average of 56.5 (Fig 2) and that of US which is only 40. This indicates a high level of discrimination in Indian society with regard to power and wealth. 2. Individualism Individualism means the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. (www.clearlycultural.com). Figure 1 one shows that the IDV for India is at 55 against that of US at 91 and a world average at 50. This shows that the Indian culture is inclined more towards collectivism rather than individualism. 3. Masculinity Masculinityrefers to the distribution of roles between the genders in a culture. (www.clearlycultural.com)India has Masculinity as the third highest ranking Hofstede Dimension at 56, with the world average just slightly lower at 51(Fig 2) 4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index Uncertainty avoidance deals with a societys tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. (www.clearlycultural.com) UAI for India is 40(Fig 1) as compared to a world average of 65 (Fig 2). This shows that the Indian culture is open to new and unknown vistas. (Greet Hofstede Cultural dimensions, 2009) 5. Long-term Orientation Long-term Orientation deals with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance. Indias Long Term Orientation (LTO) Dimension ranks 61 against that of USA at 29 (Fig 1) in the graph, while the worlds average is at 48(Fig 2). This huge difference must be note as it shows how differently the two cultures operate. The Indians would concentrate more on building a long term relationship while doing business with another party whereas, the Americans would focus just on getting the job at hand done. The LTO score indicates that the culture is perseverant and parsimonious. ( http://www.geert-hofstede.com/) 4.0 Solutions and Recommendations A thorough analysis of the Indian culture, its comparison with the American culture and its SWOT and PEST analyses reveal that the Indian market is very suitable for outsourcing the manufacturing of T-shirts and trousers. In order to achieve their target, the team of negotiators must keep in mind the following. Choose the appropriate strategy by developing a personal relationship with their Indian counterparts. As we have seen that the Indians are more prone to concentrate on building a long term relationship, the negotiators should try to cash this attribute and ask for their required targets. Project the correct personal and organisational images. Study and understand the basic cultural differences and intelligently use this information. Ask the most relevant questions. These might be outside the business area but will help in making the process of negotiation smooth. Offer and request the appropriate types of concessions at the right time. Here the tendency of the Indian culture to develop long term relations again plays a vital role. Indian manufacturers can be very loyal and giving if they are promised a long term partnership ie, the negotiators should capitalise on the long term orientation of the Indian culture. Remain focused on their targets but show flexibility in order to achieve them. This would ensure a smooth and fruitful negotiation. The team should try to impress and keep in hand the leader of the Indian negotiation team. This means that they should capitalise on the tendency of the Indian culture to respect and accept difference in power. Beauty Expressed Inc.s team should focus on a people oriented negotiation rather than a task oriented discussion. They should give more importance to the team lead of the Indian team. The negotiators should not adopt a sequential style of negotiation in fact they should adopt the holistic style of negotiation and deal with the problem as a whole. This implies that they should not try splitting the problem into parts. The negotiators should try to use a collaborative style and create a win-win situation. This would not only help them achieve their goals but would also help them create a long term relation with their Indian counterparts. 5.0 Forecasts and Outcomes The project of outsourcing manufacturing of T-shirts and trousers to an Indian company is feasible. However, the positive outcome of this project depends entirely on the success of negotiation between the team from Beauty Expressed Inc. and their Indian counterparts. This is possible if the team follows the above mentioned recommendations and be sensitive to Indian culture, its demands, dimensions and variables upon which it works.

NHS Balanced scorecard Essay -- British Health Care, Politics

This part of the assignment will discuss balanced scorecard that has been implemented by UK National Health Service (NHS), how it has influenced and impacted upon the performance measures of this organisation. ‘Since its launch in 1948, the NHS has grown to become the world’s largest publicly funded health service. NHS employs more than 1.7m people and deals on average with 1m patients every 36 hours. It is also one of the most efficient, most egalitarian and most comprehensive. Even though NHS services in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are managed separately and each might have some system differences, they remain similar in most respects and belong to a single, unified system. The NHS core principle is that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth.’ (NHS, 2010) Success of NHS depends on how well the organisation balance quality and customer (patient) satisfaction with adequate financing and long-range goals. Health care organisations such as NHS must deal with government oversight, managed care, new technologies, and increasing pharmaceutical prices. The NHS has adopted a performance measurement system that is based on the concept of balanced scorecard in order to obtain a broader view of performance within the organisation (Department of Health, 2001). Although, measuring performance evaluation of health care system could be difficult, it can on the other hand serve several purposes and can help facilitate change and improvements in the effectiveness and quality of health care. It seems peculiar to focus on performance measures in organisation such as NHS, but even NHS is facing increasing competitive pressures when considering ageing populations increasing demand, improved treatment... ...t in public/patient accountability, service efficiency and staff involvement to a highly prominent level. Government has developed ‘Star Ratings’ system which monitors improvements in accountability measures. The experience of the ‘Star Ratings’ system in respect of service efficiency indicates that it is prudent to act pro-actively rather than re-actively. It is vital to consider that the Government is expecting demonstrable improvements in health services rather than rhetoric alone (Radnor and Lovell, 2003). ‘Though it is intricate to demonstrably prove in quantitative terms that the balanced scorecard can deliver efficiency improvements at the start of its implementation, it can be shown in quantitative terms that a well designed fully cascaded balanced scorecard system should address the needs of a health care system. ’ (Radnor and Lovell, 2003, p. 105)

Discuss the Role of Malaysian Aob

Discuss the role of Malaysian AOB (Audit Oversight Board) When was the AOB set up? The Audit Oversight Board (â€Å"AOB†) is established under Part IIIA of the Securities Commission Act 1993 (â€Å"SCA†) which came into force on 1 April 2010 to promote and develop an effective audit oversight framework and to promote confidence in the quality and reliability of audited financial statements in Malaysia. The chronology of events of establishing AOB in Malaysia is as follow: September to October 2007: Budget 2008 Announcement by YAB PM – â€Å"Government will establish a Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board under the auspices of the SC†.Consultations held with industry groups and regulators. January to April 2008: Appropriate audit oversight framework for Malaysia Securities Commission (Amendment) Bill 2009 which contains the establishment and functions of the AOB passed in both Houses of Parliament. December 2009 Securities Commission (Amendment) Bill 2009 which contains the establishment and functions of the AOB passed in both Houses of Parliament. 1 April 2010 Part IIIA Securities Commission (Amendment) Act 2010 came into force. (Establish of Audit Oversight Board) What is it supposed AOB to do?Under Part IIIA of the SCA 1993, AOB is responsible to 5 major functions in order to assist the Security Committee (SC), which listed as below: (i)Standard setting AOB has the power to direct the Malaysian Institute of Accountants (MIA) to establish, adopt, amend, modify, alter or by any combined ways, the auditing and ethical standards to be applied by registered auditors. It is also responsible to implement policies and programmes in ensuring an effective audit oversight system in Malaysia. (ii)Registration Auditors of public interest entities (PIEs) must register and recognized by AOB to ensure the auditing process is fit and proper.It is an offence for non-registration. (iii)Sanctions AOB has the power to impose appropriate sanction s against registered auditors who fail to comply with auditing and ethical standards. (iv)Inspection In accordance with Section 31V(1) of Part IIIA of the SCA, the registered audit firm and auditor will be subject to inspections by the AOB to assess the degree of compliance withthe auditing and ethical standards by the auditor and the quality of the audit reports prepared by the auditor relating to the audited financial statements of the PIEs. v)Inquiry Section 31W of the SCA on the other hand empowers AOB to conduct an inquiry if there is a reason to believe that any auditor has contravened any provisions of Part IIIA of the SCA, any condition imposed under section 31O(4) of the SCA or any written notice or guidelines issued by the SC. Why do we need an AOB? The need of audit oversight board (AOB) is to make sure all audit procedure is follow probably by the auditor. By doing this it is means that AOB is the one who check the work of audit.In other way it as act audit oversight fra mework in Malaysia. It is important to have AOB is because by doing so, audit work are more reliable. Besides that, AOB needed to promote confidence in the quality and reliability of audited financial statements in Malaysia. There are many cases which involve the quality of audited reported such as Enron, Parmalat, World Com, Transmile and etc. By having a more independent party the AOB, which promote more confidence and reliable report. Thus create interest for investor to invest in Malaysia market.What is the AOB achieved so far? Based on the news of AOB on ‘The Edge’ magazine on 4 October 2012. AOB has formed an official collaboration in audit oversight with the Japan Financial Services Authority and the Certified Public Accountants Audit Oversight Board (CPAAOB). â€Å"This collaboration would facilitate audit regulators to oversee cross border audits towards enhancing the soundness of the securities markets and investor protection in the respective countries,† said by chairman Nik Mohd Hasyudeen YusoffThe SC said the collaboration was the AOB’s first arrangement with other regulators outside the Asean region. The official cooperation will allow the audit regulators to share information upon request, with respect to foreign audit firms that fall within the respective regulatory jurisdiction. This will, eventually, promote the confidence of overseas users in using the audited reports in Malaysia. What are the findings and consequences of AOB so far? After the establishment of AOB, there are a certain major change in the audit field.All audit firm are require to register their company with AOB in Malaysia. The register of audit firm is need for AOB to continue measuring the audit work of the firm. Based on AOB, every company partner will be measure their work every few year. Audit partner licenses will also be forfeit if found their work are not in tit he correct procedure. This action, have cause many auditor to do more work or mo re working paper. By doing so, much cost will be incurred to the audited firm.The reason auditor doing so is to search for more audit evidence and also to avoid being sack as an auditor. On 16 July 2012, there are partner being penalized by AOB after few year of establishment of AOB. The senior partner of a mid-tier accounting firm is the first auditor to be penalized for breaching a condition imposed when he registered with the board. Last Thursday, Alvin Tee Guan Pian of UHY Malaysia was reprimanded for â€Å"failure to comply with the relevant requirements of the recognized auditing standards in Malaysia i. . the International Standards on Auditing†. ( Enrol Oh, Starbiz, 2012) Audit oversight board is also given the power to penalized a auditor if found misstatement in audit report. By doing so, the auditor report are more reliable to external user due to there is another independent body which is the AOB involve in the Malaysia audit field. In a whole, the establish of AO B had promote more advantage to the audit firm compare to disadvantage. It is similar to what other countries have experienced?Malaysia are not the first country which establish AOB, but Malaysia are the 2nd country in ASEAN country and top 10th is Asian country which establish AOB. This has show that Malaysia auditing practices are following the improvement of international standard. Besides that, also show Malaysia is concern about the change in accounting standard to other country. AOB in other countries which have already establish are similarly same in their function of standard setting, registration, sanctions, inspection and inquiry.

Heroes and Villains in Postmodernism Essay

Postmodernism is a creative movement that is said to have originated in the 1950s. As the name suggests, it is the successor of modernism, and the development of postmodernism is visible in not only literature, but also other creative disciplines such as architecture, music, fashion, film and painting. Postmodernism was created as a reaction to its predecessor, and its â€Å"rational, scientific, and historical aspects†. This results in postmodernism being self-conscious, ironic, and experimental, concerned with the instability and unreliability of language, and with epistemology, the study of what knowledge is. In saying this, the purpose of postmodernism is not to shock the bourgeoisie world, as the avant-garde movement arguably does, but to challenge it- both by reducing it to its natural state, and by seeing how far it can be stretched beyond its existing ideas. Postmodernism does this by introducing deconstruction and disintegration to question our ideas of certainty, identity and the truth; and by the use of hyperreality, pastiche, bricolage, recurring characters, irony, authorial intrusions, non-linear narrative and self-reflexivity to bring more attention to the world outside of the text as a part of the world inside it. There is a true breakdown of what we know to be true, what we expect, and what we are able to believe, and this is certainly reflected in the depictions of heroes and villains within postmodernist texts. This investigation looks into the role of heroic and villainous characters in postmodernist texts, the aspects of the postmodern world that is portrayed by these characters and how they developed, in relation to the societal and political changes that were gasoline to the flames of postmodernism. The characters that will be used to  investigate this are the superhero Batman, and one of his arch-nemeses The Joker, using the films Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, both directed by Christopher Nolan, and the graphic novels Joker written by Brian Azzarello, and The Killing Joke, written by Alan Moore; Shrek from the film Shrek, directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson; Billy Pilgrim from the novel Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut; and Patrick Bateman from the novel American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis. These texts represent the wide-ranging reaches of postmodernism, including both what people may class as â€Å"literature† and â€Å"mass culture† as distinctive examples of postmodernism. However, in studying these texts, it is clear to see the disordered nature of postmodernism by the creation of the antihero- a protagonist who lacks the traditional heroic qualities, who is flawed, who the audience is ultimately able to recognise themselves in. How do the texts themselves reflect postmodernism? The literary label of â€Å"postmodernism† can be applied liberally, and encompasses a large number of texts, with differing postmodern qualities found in each one. However, over the range of texts that is being investigated in this report, there are some aspects that stand out more clearly than others. As this report focuses on heroes and villains within the texts, we will firstly look at the texts that were used to analyse the characters of Batman and the Joker. The texts used to study the Batman include The Dark Knight, Batman Begins, Joker, and The Killing Joke. All of these texts are set in the fictional city of Gotham, New York, which is a postmodern setting that makes us aware of facing widespread social meltdown in which it is becoming increasingly more difficult to make a separation between law and anarchy, heroism and terrorism, and sanity and madness. This shifting, sliding, disintegrating world is clearly portrayed in all of Nolan’s, Moore’s and Azzarello’s work. This postmodern setting, an arguably dystopian Gotham, is infested with crime and corruption, and fear and mistrust is abound- the people of the city cannot trust the authorities, nor can they trust any of the social or political institutions that they were brought up to believe in. This reflects the postmodern idea of disintegration- the dissolving of social norms and institutions on which many people based their lives, the removal of the â€Å"absolute†. The issues  that the citizens of Gotham face are not merely about right and wrong, or good and evil, they are vicious moral dilemmas presented by psychopathic and unpredictable villains. Also, the hyperrealistic nature of the violence that is depicted in both the films and the graphic novels is also a postmodern aspect of these texts. For example, in the graphic novel, Joker, when a mob boss who went against the Joker was flayed alive and paraded on to a strip club stage; or when Harvey Dent’s hired detective/thug is shot in the head and hung upside down from a tree on the grounds of Dent’s mansion and Dent finds him in the morning, dripping brain matter over his newspaper. Hyperreality is a deliberate blurring of the boundaries between fantasy and reality, and the portrayal of hyperreal violence in postmodern texts is common, as they distort reality through a trivialization of violence and the effects it has upon human beings. Hyperreal violence is also found in the novel American Psycho, in which Patrick Bateman, a yuppie Wall Street banker by day, and psychotic murderer by night, commits gruesome murders and sexual acts constantly throughout the novel, which are described with chillingly accurate detail. By the end of the novel, the reader is numbed to the graphic descriptions of violence and gore, accepting them as part of his everyday life, just as normal as him going to work and engaging in mindless conversation with his colleagues. However, in American Psycho, the most obvious, and most often seen, characteristic of postmodernism is its constant references to brand names, pop culture and the corporate world that Bateman is a part of. As the novel is written in a stream-of-consciousness style from Bateman’s point of view, the reader sees his thoughts as he passes shallow, superficial judgment on virtually everyone he sees. Bateman’s thoughts as he and his girlfriend Evelyn attend a party are a good indication of the tone of the novel: â€Å"Evelyn and I are by far the best-dressed couple. I’m wearing a lamb’s wool topcoat, a wool jacket with wool flannel trousers, a cotton shirt, a cashmere V-neck sweater and a silk tie, all from Armani. Evelyn’s wearing a cotton blouse by Dolce do Gabbana, suede shoes by Yves Saint Laurent, a stenciled calf skirt by Adrienne Landau with a suede belt by Jill Stuart, Calvin Klein tights, Venetian-glass earrings by Frances Patiky Stein, and  clasped in her hand is a single white rose that I bought at a Korean deli before Carruthers’ limousine picked me up. Carruthers is wearing a lamb’s wool sport coat, a cashmere/vicuà ±a cardigan sweater, cavalry twill trousers, a cotton shirt and a silk tie, all from Hermà ¨s. (â€Å"How tacky,† Evelyn whispered to me; I silently agreed.) Courtney is wearing a triple-layered silk organdy top and a long velvet skirt with a fishtail hem, velvet-ribbon and enamel earrings by Josà © and Maria Barrera, gloves by Portolano and shoes from Gucci.† The constant allusions to brand names, fashion trends and collections, make the novel a part of, and a product of, the world outside of the text, the consumerist society we have today. Unlike the fictional, dystopian city that Batman and the Joker live in, Bateman lives in a world that we are easily able to relate to- our world. We, as the reader, have our attention called to the fact that the world the characters in the novel are experiencing is the same world that we live and take part in. This is unlike most modernist novels, in which the story and its characters are confined to the world created in the novel, and the reader is only able to experience them through the windows of the novel. References to pop culture feature prominently across postmodernist texts, as seen clearly in the film Shrek. Although intended as a children’s film, the films are a perfect example of a postmodern fairytale. The films themselves are extremely intertextual, creating a story with many, many fairytale characters woven into the one story, such as the Wolf from Little Red Riding Hood, the Three Little Pigs, the Fairy Godmother and the Gingerbread Man, among many others. This intertextuality in itself is a reference to popular culture, citing multiple fairytales, stories, and nursery rhymes for many of the main characters. Other references to the world outside of the text include Robin Hood and his Merry Men dancing to Riverdance; Princess Fiona slowing down in time like Neo in film The Matrix while she is fighting; references to the film The Princess Bride; and mimicking the style of game shows and dating shows, for example when the Mirror on the Wall introduces Princess Fiona in a bachelorette-dating style. The directors also use irony at the start of the film Shrek, as the beginning scene of the film has a narrator telling the story seriously as a fairytale, when Shrek interrupts this and mocks the author when he says, â€Å"Yeah right.† and tears the page out of the book. Not only does the use of irony and humour in this scene make the audience aware  that the ogre we are introduced to is not a stereotypical one, we also see an interaction between the author and character, a barrier which is broken in postmodern texts to highlight that the text is a work of fiction. The audience is also made aware of this as Shrek acknowledges the camera or audience when he turns to the camera and blocks it before kissing Fiona. This shows that the film is self-reflexive, the characters of the film are aware of film-making and its tools. The use of such postmodern techniques embeds the story of Shrek in a world that the audience is aware of, and while it may not fully be the reality we live in, it is one that we have grown up with and are comfortable with. Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five uses similar techniques to assert its postmodernism. It references popular culture, mentioning Christmas carols, novels (a character refers to the novel â€Å"The Brothers Karamazov†, by Fyodor Dostoevsky, as â€Å"everything there was to know about life†) and history books about one of the main events of the novel, the fire-bombing of Dresden. However, despite these links to the outside world, the reader gets constant reminders of the fact that this book is fictional. The author, Vonnegut is present as a character in the book, as a soldier, a POW taken to Dresden along with Billy, making occasional comments, and then informing the reader that â€Å"That was I. That was me. That was the author of this book.† The intrusion of the author into the narrative is also shown through the recurring phrase â€Å"So it goes†, which follows each mention of death: â€Å"The plane crashed on top of Sugarbush Mountain, in Vermont. Everyone was killed but Billy. So it goes. While Billy was recuperating in a hospital in Vermont, his wife died accidentally of carbon-monoxide poisoning. So it goes.† The use of the non-linear narrative structure is also a postmodern aspect of the text- the main protagonist travels randomly through time, experiencing the events in non-chronological order. For example, his death is merely four sentences in the middle of the novel, described as merely being â€Å"violet light and a hum.† Similar to American Psycho, the usual significance of death is not present in the novel. However, while in American Psycho the reader was slowly desensitized towards death, in Slaughterhouse-Five, death  simply does not matter, which challenges all the readers’ preconceived notions about death, and the sanctity of it. The temporal structure of the novel reflects what the alien Tralfamadorians teach Billy of their beliefs about time, that it is an â€Å"assemblage† of moments rather than a linear progression. This means that they are able to accept death as a perpetually occurring event, hence their use of the phrase â€Å"So it goes†. Another postmodern technique is the use of recurring characters: the character of Kilgore Trout, a science fiction writer, appears in Vonnegut’s other novels; Eliot Rosewater appears in God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater; Howard W. Campbell, the American-turned-Nazi, in Mother Night; and Bertram Copeland Rumfoord is a relative of Winston Niles Rumfoord, who appears in The Sirens of Titan. These characters that appear over a number of books connects the discrete novels as being part of a greater whole; as being part of a world outside its pages. Vonnegut also blurs the lines of genre in the novel in order to deconstruct the idea of a â€Å"war novel†. The novel swings between the genres of science fiction and a biography, and Vonnegut mixes the fantasy of aliens and the planet Tralfamadore with the reality of war, and the author’s presence and experiences of it. The term â€Å"postmodernism† sweeps many different, and seemingly unrelated, texts under its wide reaches, but most such texts use similar postmodern techniques to achieve the ultimate effect- of making the reader aware of the text as a work of fiction, and as an entity that exists as a part of a greater whole, rather than an object existing in a world defined by itself. In what ways are the heroes or villains of these texts postmodern? With the ideological, cultural, and social upheaval that was present during the time of the birth of postmodernism, a new protagonist was born, which redefined our existing notions and stereotypes about the nature of these protagonists- the antihero. Defined as being the main character of a text, who does not possess the qualities of a traditional â€Å"hero†, the character appears in postmodern texts regularly. With the movement of heroes away from the expected â€Å"good†, we are also able to see changes in the villains of texts, and these revolutionary changes in the idea of heroes and villains,  which comes down to the primal, instinctive battle between good and evil, can be seen through postmodern texts. The character of Batman is an incredibly complex one, having heroic qualities yet not conforming to the stereotype of â€Å"superheroes†, the strong, powerful men or women with a heart of gold, using their powers for the good of mankind. Batman is postmodern in that he breaks the mold for a traditional â€Å"superhero†, and rejects the story arc for one. His whole journey started not from a need of his to create good, but a twisted sense of revenge for his parents’ death, and in order to become develop his fighting skills. After his parents’ murderer is killed, Bruce Wayne leaves Gotham and disappears for 7 years, â€Å"exploring the criminal fraternity†, and training with the League of Shadows. He obviously has a different set of morals than what is expected, when asked by Henri Ducard whether he pitied the criminals while he lived with them, he says, â€Å"The first time I stole so I wouldn’t starve, yes, I lost many assumptions about the simple nature of right and wrong.† The recurring idea throughout the texts containing Batman is that he is not a hero, but he is â€Å"whatever Gotham needs him to be†, he is a symbol for good, a symbol for the hope of a new, functional Gotham. â€Å"As a man, I’m flesh and blood, I can be ignored, I can be destroyed, but as a symbol†¦ But as a symbol I can be incorruptible, I can be everlasting†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In this way, he is astoundingly similar to Patrick Bateman. Patrick Bateman exists not as a person, but as a reflection of the society that he is a part of. He is an image created to fit the standards and ideologies of the society he lives in. â€Å"†¦there is an idea of a Patrick Bateman, some kind of abstraction, but there is no real me, only an entity, something illusory, and though I can hide my cold gaze and you can shake my hand and feel flesh gripping yours and maybe you can even sense our lifestyles are probably comparable: I simply am not there.† Through the texts, we also see that the Joker is very similar to Batman, and this is what makes their relationship so psychologically complex. They are, in a way, similar to the two sides of a coin. As the Joker says to Batman, â€Å"I complete you.† The relationship between the hero and the villain is subverted and made incredibly ambiguous. Just as the Joker is a villain who does not observe even the basic rules of criminality by which society might identify and punish him, Batman is a hero who does not observe even the  basic rules of heroism so that society might recognise and glorify him. The Killing Joke ends with Batman capturing the Joker, but deciding not to kill him, and offering to help rehabilitate him, because he â€Å"needn’t be out there on the edge anymore. You needn’t be alone†¦ Maybe I’ve been there too. Maybe I can help.† And they laugh together at a joke that the Joker tells him, which only reinforces their similarities, and the fact that they can both understand each other. The Joker, at one point in the Dark Knight, also says to Batman that they are both â€Å"freaks†. And they are, both characters being outcasts of society. But while the Joker is there willingly because of his own calculating inhumanity, Batman is the scapegoat, the reluctant outcast who takes upon himself the violence of society and its corrupted institutions, in order that its illusions of law and order might be preserved, because he rationalizes that he is â€Å"whatever Gotham needs me to be†¦ Because that’s what needs to happen. Because sometimes, truth isn’t good enough, sometimes people deserve more; sometimes people deserve to have their faith rewarded.† The story of Batman and the Joker is postmodern in that it subverts most of the expected story arcs of both superheroes, and supervillains. It shows that these two need each other to be effective. The Joker we see simultaneously seduces and repels, fascinates and horrifies, and he provides the inescapable force which Batman’s own persona is dependent upon. The character of the Joker is also very similar to Patrick Bateman, both displaying hyperreal violence in their villainy, and being incredibly unreliable narrators. In the Killing Joke, The Joker says, â€Å"†Something like that happened to me, you know. I†¦ I’m not exactly sure what it was. Sometimes I remember it one way, sometimes another†¦ If I’m going to have a past, I prefer it to be multiple choice! Ha ha ha!† Similarly, in American Psycho, we are unable to trust the memories of a psychopath, shown by his blank â€Å"But I don’t remember†¦Ã¢â‚¬  statements when recounting his murders and sexual exploits. Also, when we find that one of Bateman’s victims, a colleague of his named Paul Owen, is actually alive at the end of the book, we find ourselves being sure of the entire story- his character, the plot and definitely his grisly tales of murder and torture. Bateman and the Joker are both psychopaths- and in some ways, they are both forces of anarchy in  their societies, the Joker being an elemental force unconstrained by any glimmer of humanity, fear or vulnerability. As he claims in the Dark Knight, â€Å"The only sensible way to live in this world is without rules.† Meanwhile, Bateman has no regard for people as everything in his world is purely material- he does not care when he kills, as all he feels he is killing is an â€Å"Armani pantsuit†. Neither of these characters have an object nor a goal towards which they work, as Alfred, Bruce Wayne’s butler says, â€Å"Some men aren’t looking for anything logical, like money. They can’t be bought or bullied, reasoned or negotiated with. Some men want to watch the world burn.† However, while the Joker is invincible due to his absolute freedom from pain and any other human attachment, Bateman is confined to the expectations of his status and social culture. Bateman heavily refers to popular culture throughout Psycho, keeping up a steady stream of superficial commentary on all aspects of his life. In this way, the character of Shrek is similar to Bateman, as he also lives in a world where advertising, brand names, and social standing play a major part in one’s life. However, looking at the characters, they are clear opposites- while Bateman has embraced the shallow culture of his time, and practices it dutifully, the society of Shrek’s time has turned him into a hardened cynic, one who would rolls his eyes whenever his companions would make a frivolous comment. This is related to the fact that Shrek is an ogre, and the film subverts the stereotype of the ogre as a villain, by molding him as the hero, and the actual Prince Charming as the whiny, cowardly villain of the film. This challenges conventional thinking, since we, the audience, have been conditioned to think of ogres as â€Å"evil† creatures who eat people and have no mercy. Through this film, we see that this is actually not the case; traditional villains can also become valiant heroes, given the right setting and sidekick. Billy Pilgrim, a cowardly, weak, time-travelling optometrist who is the protagonist of the novel Slaughterhouse-Five, is an unlikely war hero. He is weak, unpopular and pathetic to the audience, and becomes a laughable soldier. Even as a time traveler, he is described as a â€Å"spastic in time†. He is postmodern in the development of his character as an â€Å"anti-hero†, an  ordinary, if slightly on the pathetic side of ordinary, man. The story is driven the other the events more than the protagonist, since he is unable to be determined and strong-minded enough to change the world, or even his social world, neither positively nor negatively. He is another unreliable narrator, when he tells the world of his tales about the Tralfamadorians, he is taken to be insane, and not believed. Because he is such a weak character, he does not contradict the fact, but neither does he support it, and so the reader is still unsure at the end of the novel whether his tales of Tralfamadore were true, or whether they were merely an elaborate coping mechanism to help deal with the terrible experiences he suffered during the war. Billy Pilgrim is the ultimate postmodern hero- he is an ordinary person, who is thrust into a difficult situation, and similar to large majority of humanity, does nothing heroic or commendable. Through this, we also come to the realization that for every lauded, decorated war hero, there were hundreds of other â€Å"average† ones, and Billy Pilgrim is a perfect example of one. Through the analysis of these heroes and villains, we are able to see that postmodernism does indeed challenge the traditional notion of a clear cut hero and villain. Just as postmodernism blurs the lines of reality in texts, it also blurs the lines in our mind separating the good and the bad. Postmodernism depicts a much more realistic hero, an increasingly more human one, who makes mistakes, is determined by what society makes it, and sometimes, does nothing heroic at all. He or she is present in postmodern texts generally not to inspire, like a classic hero, but to make the audience realize a truth about their lives, their societies, and the world around them. Villainy is depicted as a result of something, rather than a character trait. Postmodernism claims that villains are created by the expectations of society, and are therefore, an essential part of the heroes they work against. How did the external world influence the rise of postmodernism? The birth of postmodernism has been linked back to the political atmosphere of the time, in the atrocities of Stalinism. This, along with the horrors of  Nazism, and the Holocaust, completely undermined the modernist narrative of progress, and the ability of language to describe such an incomprehensible atrocity. Thus, postmodernism was born, an era which looked not to change the world, but to redefine it, to make people look at truths differently. Postmodernist authors reveal many of the concerns of the world today, by both realistically and symbolically representing our world, our societies, through their texts and characters, and making commentary on them. For example, Vonnegut wrote Slaughterhouse Five as a response to war- â€Å"It is so short and jumbled and jangled, because there is nothing intelligent to say about as massacre.† The story is very jumbled, written satirically based on Vonnegut’s own experiences in WWII and being a witness to the firebombing of Dresden, which killed 130,000 people. The use of a pathetic protagonist indicates his anti-war stance- the novel was published in 1969, when USA was in the midst of the Vietnam War. During this time, Vonnegut was an outspoken pacifist, and critic of the war. Just like Vonnegut’s novel is social commentary of the issue of his time, Bret Easton Ellis uses American Psycho to explore newer, more disturbing trends in Western culture. He looks at the desensitization of our culture to violence, the increasingly gory films, novels and graphic novels we are exposed to, and how this tendency of the media can find its way back to people who are easily influenced by it, such as Bateman. He also criticizes our obsession with popular culture, image and brand names, by portraying his protagonist, a man with the perfect face, the perfect clothes, and the perfect image, as a psychopath, a man who kills for the fun of it at night. The popular-culture-mania of our time is also explored in Shrek, as it is a children’s movie, and even children when they watch it, recognize the references to other fairytales and brand names. This reflects how we are conditioned to believe and understand popular culture from a very young age. The story of Batman and the Joker, on the other hand, delves a little deeper into the issues of our society. They uncover the crisis of values in which America, and most of the western world, finds itself at the beginning of the 21st century. Cultural theorists portrayed the late 20th century in terms of  Ã¢â‚¬Å"the postmodern condition†: an era in which traditional values, identities and social institutions were disintegrating and being replaced by twisted narratives, conflicting truth claims and multiple identities. Gotham City reflects what our society may be looking forward to, with the increasing fragmentation of our world into splintered groups and subgroups. Where does that leave us? The era of postmodernism is one that is difficult to define, but it still heralded as a time of immense cultural change, which redefined the way people look at the world today. This can be especially seen in its portrayal of heroes and villains. Gone are the days macho superheroes, instead we have flawed, sometimes even pathetic protagonists, the â€Å"anti-hero† which is increasingly similar to the ordinary person. The villains, on the other hand, are unreliable, and cannot always be expected to do the â€Å"evil† thing, they too are human; they too have backstory which elicits sympathy from the audience. By subverting the traditional stereotypes about the world today postmodern authors and directors warn us of the dangers of human nature and culture, and the bleak future we may be looking forward to, if we let the dangerous behaviour of our culture continue. Bibliography Adamson, Andrew and Jenson, Vicky. (2001) Shrek, Dreamworks Pictures Accessed 11/07/12 Adamson, Glen, et al. (2011) Postmodernism: Style and Subversion, 1970-1990. London: V&A Publishing. Accessed on 26/07/12 Azzarello, Brian (writer), Bermejo, Lee (artist), Gray, Mick (illustrator).] (2008) Joker. DC Comics Accessed on 26/07/12 Ellis, Bret Easton. (1991) American Psycho. New York: Vintage Books. Accessed 31/08/12 Moore, Alan (writer), Bolland, Brian (artist). (1988) The Killing Joke, DC Comics. Nolan, Christopher. (2005) Batman Begins, Warner Bros. Pictures Accessed 14/07/12 Nolan, Christopher. (2008) The Dark Knight, Warner Bros. Pictures Accessed 14/07/12 Vonnegut, Kurt. (2003) Slaughterhouse Five. New York: Harper Collins. Accessed 26/7/12 Wilcox, Leonard. Programme Coordinator of American Studies at University of Canterbury, interview on 12/09/12.